History Notes

Kings and Kingdoms (7th to 12th Centuries)

I. Emergence of New Dynasties (7th to 12th Centuries)

• Many new dynasties emerged after the 7th century, including the Gurjara-Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas, Palas, Cholas, and Chahamanas (Chauhans).
• Samantas: Existing kings often acknowledged big landlords or warrior chiefs as their subordinates or 'samantas'. Samantas were expected to bring gifts, attend court, and provide military support. As they gained power, they declared themselves 'maha-samanta' or 'maha-mandaleshvara' and sometimes asserted independence.
• Rashtrakutas: An example of samantas gaining independence. Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief, overthrew his Chalukya overlord in the mid-8th century and performed the 'hiranya-garbha' ritual, signifying a "rebirth" as a Kshatriya.
• Other Kingdoms: Men from enterprising families used military skills to establish kingdoms, such as Kadamba Mayurasharman (Karnataka) and Gurjara-Pratihara Harichandra (Rajasthan), both Brahmanas who took to arms.

II. Administration in the Kingdoms

• New kings adopted high-sounding titles like 'maharaja-adhiraja' (great king, overlord of kings) and 'tribhuvana-chakravartin' (lord of the three worlds).
• Power was often shared with samantas, peasant associations, traders, and Brahmanas.
• Revenue Collection: Resources were obtained from producers (peasants, cattle-keepers, artisans) who were persuaded or compelled to surrender part of their produce, often claimed as "rent". Revenue was also collected from traders.
• Chola Taxes: Chola inscriptions mention over 400 types of taxes.
  • Vetti: Not in cash, but in the form of forced labor.
  • Kadamai: Land revenue.
  • Other taxes included those on thatching houses, using ladders for palm trees, and succession to family property.
• Resources financed the king's establishment, construction of temples and forts, and wars.
• Revenue collection functionaries and army positions were often recruited from influential families and were hereditary.

III. Prashastis and Land Grants

• Prashastis: Compositions by learned Brahmanas that praised rulers, depicting them as valiant and victorious warriors. They might not be literally true but show how rulers wanted to be seen.
• Nagabhata's Achievements: A Sanskrit prashasti from Gwalior describes the exploits of Pratihara king Nagabhata.
• Land Grants: Kings often rewarded Brahmanas with land grants, recorded on copper plates with royal seals to ensure authenticity.
• Kalhana: Authored a long Sanskrit poem about the kings of Kashmir in the 12th century, using various sources. Unlike prashasti writers, he was often critical of rulers and their policies.

IV. Warfare for Wealth

• Ruling dynasties tried to control other regions. A prized area was Kanauj in the Ganga valley.
• Tripartite Struggle: The Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta, and Pala dynasties fought for centuries over Kanauj, a conflict known as the "tripartite struggle."
• Rulers built large temples to demonstrate power and resources, often targeting temples during attacks due to their wealth.
• Mahmud of Ghazni: Raided the subcontinent 17 times (1000-1025 AD), targeting wealthy temples like Somnath in Gujarat, using the plunder to build his capital at Ghazni.
• Chahamanas (Chauhans): Ruled Delhi and Ajmer. Prithviraja III (1168-1192) defeated Muhammad Ghori in 1191 but lost to him in 1192.

V. A Closer Look: The Cholas

• Rise to Power: Vijayalaya, from the Chola family of Uraiyur, captured the Kaveri delta from the Muttaraiyar in the mid-9th century. He built Thanjavur and a temple for goddess Nishumbhasudini.
• Expansion: Vijayalaya's successors expanded the kingdom, incorporating Pandyan and Pallava territories.
• Rajaraja I (985 AD): Considered the most powerful Chola ruler, he expanded control and reorganized administration.
• Rajendra I: Rajaraja's son, invaded the Ganga valley, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia, developing a navy.
• Temples and Bronze Sculpture: Large temples at Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram, built by Rajaraja and Rajendra, were centers of settlement, craft production, economic, social, and cultural life. Chola bronze images are renowned globally, depicting deities and devotees.
• Agriculture and Irrigation: Chola achievements were driven by agricultural developments. The Kaveri river's channels provided fertile soil and moisture for rice cultivation. Large-scale cultivation began in the 5th-6th centuries, involving clearing forests, leveling land, building embankments, and constructing canals. Various irrigation methods, including wells and tanks, were used, requiring careful planning and resource management.
• Administration of the Empire:
  • Ur: Settlements of peasants that became prosperous.
  • Nadu: Larger units formed by groups of villages, performing administrative functions like dispensing justice and collecting taxes.
  • Rich peasants held significant control over the nadu.
  • Chola kings gave titles like 'muvendavelan' and 'araiyar' to rich landowners, entrusting them with state offices.
  • Brahmana Settlements: Many emerged due to land grants (brahmadeya), looked after by assemblies ('sabha') of prominent Brahmana landholders.
  • Nagarams: Associations of traders that performed administrative functions in towns.
  • Uttaramerur Inscription: Provides details on the 'sabha' organization, including committees for irrigation, gardens, and temples, with members selected by lottery using palm leaf tickets.
  • Eligibility for Sabha Membership: Landowners from whom revenue was collected, with their own homes, aged 35-70, knowledge of the Vedas, well-versed in administration, and honest.
• Types of Land (Chola Inscriptions):
  • Vellanvagai: Land of non-Brahmana peasant proprietors.
  • Brahmadeya: Land gifted to Brahmanas.
  • Shalabhoga: Land for school maintenance.
  • Devadana, Tirunamattukkani: Land gifted to temples.
  • Pallichchhandam: Land donated to Jaina institutions.

Delhi: 12th to 15th Century

I. Delhi as a Capital

• Delhi became an important city in the twelfth century.
• It first became the capital under the Tomara Rajputs, who were defeated by the Chauhans (Chahamanas) of Ajmer in the mid-12th century.
• Under the Tomaras and Chauhans, Delhi became a significant commercial center. Jaina merchants lived there and built temples.
• Coins minted in Delhi, called 'dehliwal', had wide circulation.
• The Delhi Sultanate was founded in the early thirteenth century, transforming Delhi into a capital controlling vast areas.

II. Rulers of Delhi Sultanate (13th to 15th Centuries)

• Rajput Dynasties:
  • Tomaras (Early 12th century - 1165): Ananga Pala (1130-1145)
  • Chauhans (1165-1192): Prithviraj Chauhan (1175-1192)
• Early Turkish Rulers (1206-1290):
  • Qutbuddin Aybak (1206-1210)
  • Shamsuddin Iltutmish (1210-1236)
  • Raziyya (1236-1240)
  • Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266-1287)
• Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320):
  • Jalaluddin Khalji (1290-1296)
  • Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316)
• Tughluq Dynasty (1320-1414):
  • Ghiyasuddin Tughluq (1320-1324)
  • Muhammad Tughluq (1324-1351)
  • Firuz Shah Tughluq (1351-1388)
• Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451):
  • Khizr Khan (1414-1421)
• Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526):
  • Bahlul Lodi (1451-1489)

III. Understanding Delhi under the Sultans

• Tarikh/Tawarikh: Histories written in Persian, the administrative language of the Delhi Sultans.
• Authors of Tawarikh: Learned men (secretaries, administrators, poets, courtiers) who recounted events, advised rulers on governance, and emphasized just rule.
  • They lived mainly in cities (Delhi) and rarely in villages.
  • They often wrote for Sultans hoping for rewards.
  • They advised rulers to preserve an "ideal" social order based on birthright and gender distinctions.
• Circle of Justice: A concept explained by Fakhr-i Mudabbir (13th century), stating that a king needs soldiers, soldiers need salaries, salaries come from revenue, peasants pay revenue when prosperous, and prosperity comes from justice and honest governance.
• Birthright: Privileges claimed due to birth (e.g., nobles inheriting governing rights).
• Gender Distinctions: Social and biological differences between women and men, often used to argue male superiority.
• Raziyya Sultan (1236-1240): Daughter of Sultan Iltutmish, she became Sultan. The chronicler Minhaj-us-Siraj recognized her ability but was uncomfortable with a queen ruler. Nobles were also unhappy with her independent rule, leading to her removal in 1240.
  • Minhaj-us-Siraj believed her rule went against the divine social order where women were subordinate.
  • Raziyya asserted her identity as Iltutmish's daughter on inscriptions and coins.
  • Contrast with Queen Rudramadevi of Kakatiya dynasty who pretended to be a man on inscriptions. Queen Didda (980-1003) of Kashmir was an affectionate ruler.

IV. Administration under the Khaljis and Tughluqs

• Bandagan: Special slaves purchased for military service by early Delhi Sultans (especially Iltutmish) and trained for important political offices, favored over aristocrats and chieftains.
• Khalji and Tughluq Expansion: The Khalji and Tughluq dynasties extended their control over vast areas of the subcontinent.
• Military Expeditions:
  • Alauddin Khalji: Led expeditions into Gujarat, Rajasthan, and southern India.
  • Muhammad Tughluq: Campaigns into southern India, leading to annexation.
• Challenges of Control: Maintaining control over distant provinces was difficult due to poor communication and rebellious governors.
• Iqta and Muqtis: Military commanders were appointed as governors of territories called 'iqtas'. Their holders were called 'iqtadars' or 'muqtis'.
  • Muqtis' Duties: Lead military campaigns, maintain law and order in their iqtas, collect revenue for salary, and pay their soldiers.
  • Control over Muqtis: Their appointments were not hereditary, and iqtas were assigned for short periods before transfer. Accountants were appointed to check revenue collection. This ensured strict control.
• Revenue Collection: The Delhi Sultans brought the hinterlands under their control, forcing chieftains and landlords to accept their authority.
  • Three types of taxes: on cultivation (kharaj, about 50% of the peasant's produce), on cattle, and on houses.
  • Chieftains and rich landlords were not exempt and had to pay taxes.
• Challenges in Provinces: Large parts of the subcontinent remained outside Sultanate control, especially in Bengal and the Deccan, which broke away. Local chieftains established independent kingdoms.
• Ibn Battuta: A 14th-century Moroccan traveler, described Delhi as a sprawling city.

V. The Sultanate in the 15th and 16th Centuries

• The Tughluq, Sayyid, and Lodi dynasties ruled from Delhi and Agra until 1526.
• New ruling groups like the Afghans and Rajputs emerged.
• Sher Shah Sur (1540-1545): Overthrew Humayun (Mughal emperor), captured Delhi, and established his own dynasty, Sur Dynasty.
  • His administration was effective and influenced Akbar's administration.
  • He built a Grand Trunk Road from Bengal to Peshawar.
  • He introduced a currency known as 'Rupiya' which was used for a long time.

The Mughals (16th to 17th Century)

I. The Mughal Empire (16th to 17th Century)

• The Mughals created a vast empire across the Indian subcontinent, expanding from Agra and Delhi to control nearly all of it by the 17th century.
• They left a lasting political legacy with their administrative structures and governance ideas. The Red Fort in Delhi, a Mughal residence, is where the Indian Prime Minister addresses the nation.

II. Who were the Mughals?

• Ancestry: Descendants of two great lineages:
  • Mother's side: Genghis Khan (died 1227), Mongol ruler of China and Central Asia.
  • Father's side: Timur (died 1404), ruler of Iran, Iraq, and modern-day Turkey.
• Identity: Mughals disliked being called 'Mughal' or 'Mongol' due to Genghis Khan's association with massacres and rivalry with Uzbegs.
• They were proud of their Timurid ancestry because Timur captured Delhi in 1398. They celebrated their genealogy pictorially.

III. Mughal Military Campaigns

• Babur (1526-1530): The first Mughal emperor.
  • Succeeded to the throne of Ferghana in 1494 at age 12 but was forced to leave due to Uzbeg invasion.
  • Seized Kabul in 1504.
  • In 1526, he defeated Ibrahim Lodi (Sultan of Delhi) at the First Battle of Panipat and captured Delhi and Agra. Cannons were effectively used in this battle.

IV. Mughal Traditions of Succession

• The Mughals did not follow primogeniture (eldest son inheriting).
• Instead, they followed the Mughal and Timurid custom of coparcenary inheritance, dividing inheritance among all sons.

V. Mughal Relations with Other Rulers

• Mughals constantly campaigned against rulers who refused their authority.
• Many rulers, particularly Rajputs, voluntarily joined them, marrying their daughters into Mughal families and receiving high positions.
  • Jahangir's mother was a Kachhwaha princess (Amber/Jaipur).
  • Shah Jahan's mother was a Rathor princess (Marwar/Jodhpur).
• Resistance: Sisodiya Rajputs of Mewar resisted but were honourably treated after defeat, retaining their lands (watan) as 'watan jagir'.
• This balance between defeat and respectful treatment helped Mughals extend influence.

VI. Mansabdars and Jagirdars

• Mansabdars: Individuals holding a 'mansab' (position or rank) in Mughal service.
  • It was a grading system for: (1) rank, (2) salary, and (3) military responsibilities.
  • Zat: A numerical value determining rank and salary. Higher zat meant higher prestige and salary.
  • Sawar: Mansabdars had military responsibilities to maintain a specified number of cavalrymen. They presented cavalrymen for review, registered them, branded horses, and received money for salaries.
• Jagirs: Revenue assignments given as salaries to mansabdars, similar to 'iqtas'.
  • Unlike 'muqtis', most mansabdars did not reside in or administer their jagirs; their servants collected revenue, while they served elsewhere.
  • Akbar's Reign: Jagirs were carefully assessed to match the mansabdar's salary.
  • Aurangzeb's Reign: Actual revenue collected from jagirs was often less than the granted sum.
  • Increased number of mansabdars led to a shortage of jagirs and a long wait for assignments.
  • Jagirdars tried to extract maximum revenue, leading to immense suffering for the peasantry.

VII. Zabt and Zamindars

• Zabt: The main source of Mughal income was tax on peasant produce.
• Zamindars: A term used by Mughals to describe all intermediaries (local headmen or powerful chieftains) who collected taxes from peasants.
• Todar Mal: Akbar's revenue minister, conducted a 10-year survey (1570-1580) of crop yields, prices, and cultivated areas. Based on this, a fixed tax ('zabt') was levied on each crop in cash, based on the average price over the previous ten years.
• The system was prevalent in areas where Mughals could survey land and keep accounts, like Gujarat and Bengal.
• In some areas, zamindars exercised great power, and sometimes they rebelled against Mughal authority.

VIII. A Closer Look: Akbar's Policies

• Akbar Nama: The history of Akbar's reign written by Abu'l Fazl, divided into three volumes.
  • First volume: History of mankind from Adam to Akbar's life.
  • Second volume: History of Akbar's reign up to 46th regnal year.
  • Third volume: Ain-i Akbari, details Akbar's administration, army, revenue, geography, and traditions of people. It also includes statistics on crops, prices, revenues, and wages.
• Administration: Akbar divided his empire into provinces called 'subas', governed by 'subadars' who held both military and political functions. Each suba had a financial officer called 'diwan'.
• Support for Subadar: The subadar was supported by officers like the military paymaster ('bakhshi'), minister in charge of religious and charitable patronage ('sadr'), military commanders ('faujdars'), and town police commander ('kotwal').
• Religious Debates and Sulh-i Kul:
  • Akbar was interested in religion and social customs.
  • He held discussions with religious scholars (Brahmanas, Jesuits, Zoroastrians, Muslim ulamas) in the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) at Fatehpur Sikri.
  • These discussions led him to the idea of 'sulh-i kul' (universal peace), a policy of tolerance where all religions could live in peace.
  • This policy was based on honesty, justice, and peace, and was implemented through administration by Abu'l Fazl.

IX. The Mughal Empire in the 17th Century and After

• The Mughal Empire's administrative and military efficiency led to great economic and commercial prosperity.
• However, the benefits did not extend to all; the vast wealth of the mansabdars created immense disparities between them and the peasants.
• The Mughals became less effective after Aurangzeb's death in 1707.
• Provincial governors and powerful chieftains asserted independence, leading to the emergence of new independent kingdoms (e.g., Hyderabad, Awadh).
• Despite its decline, the Mughal Empire's structures and administrative practices continued to influence later Indian rulers.
• The legacy of the Mughal Empire was significant, with the British also using its administrative framework.